The population of India is not easily defined as belonging to classic divisions of biological affinity, such as European/African/East Asian. Often times, a skeleton exhibits characteristics of more than one racial group and does not fit neatly into the three-race model. The purpose of this study was not to evaluate the competence of specific studies against skeletons of known sex, but to assess consistency with which morphological and metric methods can determine skeletal sex. The information gathered by a forensic anthropolo… Numbers (1) and (2) in column 14 indicate results of two different discriminant function equations by the same author. Thus, of 17 individuals with a majority of methods indicating one particular sex, 13 were also classified as another sex by at least one method. Method 12 (descriptive, mandible) shows the highest level of similarity (0.97) with methods 2 (quantitative, other bones), 8 (descriptive, skull), and 14 (descriptive, skull, pelvis, and long bones). The methods were included because they are widely used or cited, such as Acsadi and Nemeskeri [7], Krogman and Iscan [8], Phenice [9], and Steyn and Işcan [10], and other studies which address a novel or revised technique for sex estimation [1, 11–19]. This study considers it “majority” when at least eight of the 15 total methods produce the same result. Currently, it is thought that the morphological indicators provide the greatest discrimination between the sexes, that is, the pelvis and the skull, with 95% and 90% accuracy, respectively [1, 7, 9, 23]. Comparison of the consistency between morphological (descriptive) and metric methods, where M = male; F = female; A = ambiguous. Methods used for the determination of sex in this study. In forensic proceedings the standard of evidence required is “beyond reasonable doubt,” and in this study significant doubt is evident. Even those methods that showed formerly significant often had low degrees of agreement as indicated by Cramer’s values below 0.70. consider. The methods selected, chosen for this study, are those commonly used in forensic anthropology. It may be argued that this subset cannot provide an accurate representation of all available methods; however, with results showing a 0% reliability rate of the consistency between many methods used, one can assume that if more methods were used, lack of consistency would have persisted. We can tell almost for sure if a skeleton is male or female, however, this analysis can only be carried on adults as infants still don't have the development necessary for such differences to be noticed. All other methods show a significant level of similarity with at least two different methods. This is especially highlighted by three cases (specimens 8, 12, and 20), where individuals did not have a majority of methods indicating clearly one sex. In the case of this study, this bias was avoided because IS, although fully trained in methods of sex and age estimation, had no experience working for a substantial time with any single, specific skeletal sample from a particular population. She is familiar with Martin’s technique of anthropometric measurements, which was designed to minimise measurement errors. This paper is dedicated to the memory of the late Dr. Susan R. Loth who contributed heavily to the thoughts expressed here. Some Australians of European descent may have a small admixture from Aboriginal Australians; this, however, is unlikely to influence their morphology. This increases reliability of a sex estimate but does not always guarantee it. The three key factors required to identify skeletal remains are age, sex and race. Twenty skeletons of varied provenance had their sex determined by 15 existing methods of forensic anthropology (7 metric and 8 morphological). This study employed methods that are being used currently in forensic investigations and they failed to provide consistent identification of sex in all 20 cases, including the one skeleton of known sex. An individual skeleton may not conform to the characteristics of the population used in the study, and as a result misidentification of sex may occur [5]. These skeletons are derived from a variety of populations. Thus the methods are only partly independent. A larger sample size may have enabled a consistent determination of sex to occur although the fact that this was not seen in 20 skeletal cases is cause for concern. However, they can only be measured in categorical scales, which rely on judgments of observers [2–4]. In evaluation approach (4), Figure 1(a) shows that 14 individuals (specimen numbers 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18) incurred ambiguous results from at least one of the seven metric methods in the determination of their sex. Sign up here as a reviewer to help fast-track new submissions. There are several features that can be used to determine the race of an individual. The methods chosen utilise different skeletal elements to determine sex using different approaches to describing individual variation: categorical classification of morphological features or metric dimensions of skeletal elements. Many of these characteristics have evolved in response to environmental factors and analysis of the features of the skull can thus give an indication of the ancestry of an individual. Since both groups of methods, morphologic and metric, have strengths and weaknesses, their combination, by quantifying shape, may provide a solution. The determination of skeletal sex, in a particular case, may depend on the method used by forensic investigators. When comparing Figures 1(a) and 1(b), it can be seen that morphological methods provide greater consistency in determining skeletal sex in comparison to metric methods. Their full list can be seen in Table 1. Determination of skeletal sex is often the first biological characteristic sought after by forensic investigators in cases of discovery of skeletal remains. We will be providing unlimited waivers of publication charges for accepted research articles as well as case reports and case series related to COVID-19. Methods which combine morphologic and metric techniques, that is, geometric morphometric analysis, may result in greater levels of consistency. In methods of sex estimation characteristics that may result from specific gender roles in particular populations, as well as those related to overall size of individuals, seem to be least useful when a population of origin is not known. The first author is an osteologist, trained at a Master’s level. The consistency with which existing methods are able to correctly identify skeletal sex needs to be investigated. This, however, may not always be the case, especially in highly mobile societies or when an anthropologist is studying a series of skeletal remains of an unfamiliar area. The skeletons were of unknown sex, with one exception.
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